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第一章 胆道肿瘤病理组织学分类、流行病学特点及发病机制

一、胆道肿瘤的病理组织学分类

胆道肿瘤是指原发于胆管系统的肿瘤,依据原发肿瘤起源的解剖部位不同,分为肝内、外胆道系统及胆囊良、恶性肿瘤。依据“2019世界卫生组织(WHO)肿瘤分类及诊断标准系列”的分类标准,胆道肿瘤主要由良性上皮性肿瘤及癌前病变和恶性上皮性肿瘤构成(表1-0-1),患者人群中以胆管腺癌或胆囊腺癌占主要比例[1,2]。诸如腺瘤、囊腺瘤、乳头状瘤等胆囊或胆管系统良性肿瘤均有恶变倾向,2019 WHO分类标准中已将其归于癌前病变。胆管系统平滑肌瘤、颗粒细胞瘤、平滑肌肉瘤、横纹肌肉瘤、卡波西(Kaposi)肉瘤、恶性淋巴瘤等非上皮性肿瘤发病率较低。

表1-0-1 世界卫生组织胆囊及胆管肿瘤组织学分类(2019)

注:NOS:Not Otherwise Specified,非特指型。

二、胆道肿瘤流行病学特点

胆道恶性肿瘤是一类恶性程度高、预后较差的消化系统常见恶性肿瘤。肝内胆管癌是指肿瘤起源于肝内胆管上皮的恶性肿瘤,自美国癌症联合委员会(AJCC)癌症分期系统第7版起,对肝内胆管癌、混合性肝癌(包含肝细胞-胆管上皮细胞二者起源的恶性肿瘤)与肝细胞肝癌进行了明确的划分,肝内胆管癌、混合性肝癌均归为胆管癌的范畴;肝外胆道系统恶性肿瘤分为胆囊癌与肝外胆管癌,后者又分为肝门部胆管癌、远端胆管癌(胆总管中段及下段胆管癌)等类型。胆道恶性肿瘤发病率仅次于原发性肝癌,是肝胆系统第二大恶性肿瘤。胆囊癌约占胆道恶性肿瘤的70%以上。胆管癌中以肝门部胆管癌最多见,约占胆管癌的50%,远端胆管癌约占40%,而肝内胆管癌构成比少于10%[3,4]

世界范围内,东亚地区是胆管癌的相对高发区[4]。根据国家癌症中心发布的2017中国肿瘤登记年报数据,2014年全国339个肿瘤登记地区胆囊及肝外胆管癌新发病例11 238例,发病率为3.90/10万,占全部恶性肿瘤发病的1.36%;死亡8 370例,死亡率2.90/10万,中标死亡率女性为男性的1.05倍,城市为农村的1.38倍;年龄别发病率和死亡率在50岁之前处于较低水平,50岁以后显著上升,80岁及以上年龄组达到高峰;各年龄组发病率和死亡率城市均高于农村[5]

三、胆道肿瘤“炎-癌转化”机制

目前对胆道恶性肿瘤确切的发病机制还存在诸多未知。随着对胆道恶性肿瘤发病机制研究的深入,胆道系统慢性炎症在胆道恶性肿瘤的发生中所发挥的关键性作用已得到重视。

炎症与肿瘤是人类的两大基本病理学现象。研究发现,炎症与肿瘤存在密切的联系,慢性炎性疾病与癌症的明确关系[6,7]表明,“炎-癌转化”在恶性肿瘤发病机制中占据重要的地位[8-11]。流行病学的研究发现,病毒感染(乙肝病毒、丙肝病毒等慢性肝炎病毒)[12-21]、胆道结石 [22-29]、寄生虫 [30-35]、细菌感染(螺杆菌、沙门氏菌等)[36-51]、胆管先天性发育异常 [52-62]、长期吸烟及环境毒物(黄曲霉素、石棉、二氧化钍、亚硝胺等)[63-65]等因素是胆道恶性肿瘤发病的危险因素。在上述危险因素中,慢性炎症始终贯穿于胆道恶性肿瘤的发生、发展、转归等环节。

机体在高血糖的慢性炎症状态下,会增加组织细胞恶性变的病理生理趋势,糖尿病与癌症发生的相关性已得到共识。糖尿病会导致发生肝内胆管癌的风险增加,应用降血糖药物二甲双胍能够显著降低糖尿病患者发生胆管癌的风险,对于其确切机制尚未有明确的结论。在乳腺癌、肺癌、胰腺癌和结直肠癌等多种人类癌症中存在肝脏激酶B1(LKB1)基因突变,LKB1/AMPK/mTOR/S6K1信号通路可能是抑制肿瘤发生的重要通路。在LKB1表达缺失的条件下,二甲双胍抑制肿瘤细胞生长的能力大为下降[66-69]LKB1在胆管癌中也存在突变现象,这可能是二甲双胍能够保护糖尿病患者胆管癌发生风险降低的主要原因。编者团队的研究发现,LKB1在约12%的胆管癌组织中表达水平降低,而且LKB1的降低可明显促进肿瘤的转移和进展,但LKB1的表达异常是否与肿瘤的发生相关还需进一步探索[70]。编者团队进行的体外实验和体内实验均证实,降血糖药物苯乙双胍能诱导胆管癌细胞发生凋亡和自噬、抑制胆管癌细胞的增殖和生长。其机制与苯乙双胍部分激活LKB1/5'AMP-活化蛋白激酶信号通路有关,敲除LKB1基因后,苯乙双胍的上述生物学效应消失[71]

胆道系统慢性炎症导致胆管上皮癌变,可能遵循以下途径:胆管上皮细胞发生慢性炎症→机体免疫失衡状态→炎症介质释放紊乱→刺激胆管上皮细胞发生基因突变→胆管上皮细胞异常发育→胆道肿瘤发生(图1-0-1)。及时、有效地对胆道系统慢性炎症进行治疗干预,是避免其发展至胆道恶性肿瘤的有效手段。

图1-0-1 胆道恶性肿瘤“炎-癌转化”机制模式图

HBV.乙型肝炎病毒;HCV.丙型肝炎病毒。

四、胆道肿瘤相关术语

(一)胆道肿瘤及癌前病变的中英文名称

本书中涉及的胆囊肿瘤及其癌前病变的中英文名称见表1-0-2。

表1-0-2 胆道肿瘤及其癌前病变中英文名称

(二)肝切除术的规范化称谓

依据肝脏Couinaud解剖分段法[72,73]及中华医学会外科学分会肝脏外科学组制订的肝切除手术命名法(2017年第1次修订,第2版)[74],在本书中对胆道肿瘤外科治疗涉及的肝切除术进行下述规范性命名:

1.非解剖性肝切除
(1)肝肿瘤剜除术(enucleation of hepatic tumor):

在肝实质中沿肿瘤包膜外分离,直至将肿瘤完整地剜除,最大限度保留肝实质,常用于肝血管瘤等肝内良性肿瘤。

肝内胆管癌、胆囊癌肝侵犯或肝内转移等胆道肿瘤外科治疗术式,不应采用肝内肿瘤剜除的术式。

(2)限制性肝切除术(limited hepatectomy):

通常是指为保留更多的肝实质,肝实质离断切缘距离肿瘤边界小于1cm。

胆道肿瘤外科治疗术式不建议常规应用限制性肝切除术。

(3)局部性肝切除术(local hepatectomy):

是在距肿瘤边缘≥1cm的正常肝组织处离断肝实质,以达到既能将肿瘤完全切除,又可以更多保留残肝组织的目的。

部分肝内胆管癌、胆囊癌肝侵犯或肝转移等适用于局部性肝切除术。

(4)其他特殊类型的非解剖性肝切除术

1)肝楔形切除术(wedge hepatectomy):

肝楔形切除术是肝部分切除术的一种类型,主要适用于肝边缘部肿瘤的切除。

对于T3期、无肝内广泛转移的胆囊癌,可行距胆囊床3cm的肝楔形切除术。

2)围肝门切除术:

围肝门区域是指第一肝门附近、包含血管及胆管的狭小空间解剖区域,随着肝脏外科临床实践及解剖的发展,在肝胆外科学界逐渐形成了这一约定俗成的称谓,其范围界定于肝脏脏面H形横沟区域内[75]。董家鸿等认为围肝门区域涵盖经过第一肝门的脉管及其周围组织结构,包括肝十二指肠韧带、尾状叶、肝脏4b段和5段、肝门板等[76]。围肝门切除术即指在围肝门区域内实施的肝切除术,也有人称之为中央型肝切除(central hepatectomy)[77],其本质是一种保留功能肝实质的肝切除术(parenchyma-preserving hepatectomy),主要应用于部分肝门部胆管癌及胆囊癌的手术方案中[78,79]

2.解剖性肝切除
(1)肝段切除术(hepatic segmentectomy):

将某一肝段全切除,称肝段切除术。

(2)半肝切除术(hemi-hepatectomy):

正常以肝正中裂为界将肝脏分为左、右两半,沿着正中裂切开肝包膜、离断肝实质,将左半肝或右半肝予以完全切除,称为半肝切除术。右半肝的完全切除(Ⅴ、Ⅵ、Ⅶ、Ⅷ肝段),称为右半肝切除术。左半肝的完全切除(Ⅱ、Ⅲ、Ⅳ肝段),称为左半肝切除术,Ⅰ肝段切除可独立命名为肝尾状叶切除术。

(3)肝三叶切除术(hepatic trilobectomy):

同时切除肝右后叶、右前叶及左内叶(Ⅳ、Ⅴ、Ⅵ、Ⅶ、Ⅷ段),称肝右三叶切除术;同时切除肝左外叶、左内叶及右前叶(Ⅱ、Ⅲ、Ⅳ、Ⅴ、Ⅷ肝段),称肝左三叶切除术。

3.根据肝切除范围命名
(1)肝部分切除术(partial resection):

指仅切部分肝脏,包括解剖性和非解剖性肝切除,可分为小范围肝切除和大范围肝切除两种。

(2)小范围肝切除(minor hepatectomy):

<3个肝段的肝切除。

(3)大范围肝切除(major hepatectomy):

≥3个肝段的肝切除。国内也有“大部肝切除”的称谓,在本书中统一为表述“大范围肝切除”。

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